Besides bringing closer together the results for different varieties of chemical constitution, ionization by increasing the number of supporting particles lowers the calculated temperatures considerably. It is sometimes thought that the exceedingly high temperature assigned to the interior of a star is a modern sensationalism. That is not so. The early investigators, who neglected both ionization and radiation pressure, assigned much higher temperatures than those now accepted.

Radiation Pressure and Mass

2000000000000000000000000000 tons I hope I have counted the 0's rightly, though I dare say you would not mind much if there were one or two too many or too few. But Nature does mind. When she made the stars she evidently attached great importance to getting the number of 0's right. She has an idea that a star should contain a particular amount of material. Of course she allows what the officials at the mint would call a remedy . She may even pass a star with one 0 too many and give us an exceptionally large star, or with one 0 too few, giving a very small star. But these deviations are rare, and a mistake of two 0's is almost unheard of. Usually she adheres much more closely to her pattern.

How does Nature keep count of the 0's? It seems clear that there must be something inside the star itself which keeps check and, so to speak, makes a warning protest as soon as the right amount of material has been gathered together. We think we know how it is done. You remember the ether waves inside the star. These are trying to escape outwards and they exert a pressure on the matter which is caging them in. This outward force, if it is sufficiently powerful to be worth considering in comparison with other forces, must be taken into account in any study of the equilibrium or stability of the star. Now in all small globes this force is quite trivial; but its importance increases with the mass of the globe, and it is calculated that at just about the above mass it reaches equal status with the other forces governing the equilibrium of the star. If we had never seen the stars and were simply considering as a curious problem how big a globe of matter could possibly hold together, we could calculate that there would be no difficulty up to about two thousand quadrillion tons; but beyond that the conditions are entirely altered and this new force begins to take control of the situation. Here, I am afraid, strict calculation stops, and no one has yet been able to calculate what the new force will do with the star when it does take control. But it can scarcely be an accident that the stars are all so near to this critical mass; and so I venture to conjecture the rest of the story. The new force does not prohibit larger mass, but it makes it risky. It may help a moderate rotation about the axis to break up the star. Consequently larger masses will survive only rarely; for the most part stars will be kept down to the mass at which the new force first becomes a serious menace. The force of gravitation collects together nebulous and chaotic material; the force of radiation pressure chops it off into suitably sized lumps.

This force of radiation pressure is better known to many people under the name 'pressure of light'. The term 'radiation' comprises all kinds of ether-waves including light, so that the meaning is the same. It was first shown theoretically and afterwards verified experimentally that light exerts a minute pressure on any object on which it falls. Theoretically it would be possible to knock a man over by turning a searchlight on him -- only the searchlight would have to be excessively intense, and the man would probably be vaporized first. Pressure of light probably plays a great part in many celestial phenomena. One of the earliest suggestions was that the minute particles forming the tail of a comet are driven outwards by the pressure of sunlight, thus accounting for the fact that a comet's tail points away from the sun. But that particular application must be considered doubtful. Inside the star the intense stream of light (or rather X-rays) is like a wind rushing outwards and distending the star.