was about 120,000 miles high. It went through great changes of form and disappeared in not much more than twenty-four hours. This was rather an exceptional specimen. Smaller flames occur commonly enough; it seems that the curious black marks in Fig. 1, often looking like rifts, are really prominences seen in projection against the still brighter background of the sun. The flames consist of calcium, hydrogen, and several other elements.

We are concerned not so much with the prominences as with the layer from which they spring. The ordinary atmosphere of the sun terminates rather abruptly, but above it there is a deep though very rarefied layer called the chromosphere consisting of a few selected elements which are able to float -- float, not on the top of the sun's atmosphere, but on the sunbeams. The art of riding a sunbeam is evidently rather difficult, because only a few of the elements have the necessary skill. The most expert is calcium. The light and nimble hydrogen atom is fairly good at it, but the ponderous calcium atom does it best.

The layer of calcium suspended on the sunlight is at least 5,000 miles thick. We can observe it best when the main part of the sun is hidden by the moon in an eclipse; but the spectroheliograph enables us to study it to some extent without an eclipse. On the whole it is steady and quiescent, although, as the prominence flames show, it is liable to be blown sky-high by violent outbursts. The conclusions about the calcium chromosphere that I am going to describe rest on a series of remarkable researches by Professor Milne.

How does an atom float on a sunbeam? The possibility depends on the pressure of light to which we have already referred (p. 26). The sunlight travelling outwards carries a certain outward momentum; if the atom absorbs the light it absorbs also the momentum and so receives a tiny impulse outwards. This impulse enables it to recover the ground it was losing in falling towards the sun. The atoms in the chromosphere are kept floating above the sun like tiny shuttlecocks, dropping a little and then ascending again from the impulse of the light. Only those atoms which can absorb large quantities of sunlight in proportion to their weight will be able to float successfully. We must look rather closely into the mechanism of absorption of the calcium atom if we are to see why it excels the other elements.

The ordinary calcium atom has two rather loose electrons in its attendant system; the chemists express this by saying that it is a divalent element, the two loose electrons being especially important in determining the chemical behaviour. Each of these electrons possesses a mechanism for absorbing light. But under the conditions prevailing in the chromosphere one of the electrons is broken away, and the calcium atoms are in the same smashed state that gives rise to the 'fixed lines' in the interstellar cloud. The chromospheric calcium thus supports itself on what sunlight it can gather in with the one loose electron remaining. To part with this would be fatal; the atom would no longer be able to absorb sunlight, and would drop like a stone. It is true that after two electrons are lost there are still eighteen remaining; but these are held so tightly that sunlight has no effect on them and they can only absorb shorter waves which the sun does not radiate in any quantity. The atom therefore could only save itself if it restored its main absorbing mechanism by picking up a passing electron; it has little chance of catching one in the rarefied chromosphere, so it would probably fall all the way to the sun's surface.

There are two ways in which light can be absorbed. In one the atom absorbs so greedily that it bursts, and the electron scurries off with the surplus energy. That is the process of ionization which was shown in Fig. 5. Clearly this cannot be the process of absorption in the chromosphere because, as we have seen, the atom cannot afford to lose the electron. In the other method of absorption the atom is not quite so greedy. It does not burst, but it swells visibly. To accommodate the extra energy the electron is tossed up into a higher orbit. This method is called excitation (cf. p. 59). After remaining in the excited orbit for a little while the electron comes down again spontaneously. The process has to be repeated 20,000 times a second in order to keep the atom balanced in the chromosphere.

The point we are leading up to is, Why should calcium be able to float better than other elements? It has always seemed odd that a rather heavy element (No. 20 in order of atomic weight) should be found